Jonathan D. Spence. The Search for Modern China. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1990.

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In this context, the emperor Guangxu, who undoubtly had a wider view of the options facin China than any of his predecessors...
decided to assert his own independence as ruler, and to act on the country's behalf. Between June and September 1898 he issued an extraordinary series of edicts, earning for this period the name of the "Hundred Days' Reforms." Although most of the edicts dealt with proposals that had already been raised by self-strengthening reformers and by the jinshi protestors of 1895, there had never befire been such a coherent body of reform ideas presented on imperial initiative and backed by imperial prestige.

Guanxu called for changes in four main areas of Qing life and government. To reform China's examination system, he orders the abolition of the highly stylized format knows as the "eith legged essay," which had structured the exams for centuries. he also urged hat fine calligraphy and knowledge of poetry no longer be major criteria in grading degree candidates; instead he ordered the use of more questions related to practical governmental problems.


Also in the area of education, he ordered the upgrading of the Peking college and the addition to it of a medical school, the conversion of the old academied to modern schools offering both Chinese and Western learning, and the opening of the vocational istitues for the study of mining, industry, and railways.

In the broader area of ecnomic development, the emperor ordered local officials to coordinate reforms in commerce, industry, and agriculture, and to increase the production of teas and silk for export. new bureaus in Peking were established to supervise such growth, along with mines and railways, and the Ministry of Revenue was to design an overall annual budget for the country as a whole.

Guangxu also addressed the strengthening of the armed forces. Much of the oney that had been needed by the navy had gone into the rebuilding of the empress dowager's summer palace, which included construction of a marble "boat" for her lake-viewing pleasure. now a fleet of theirty- four modernn warships was to be assembled, by purchase or ay local construction. Army drill was to be standardized along Western lines. Training and dscipline of local militias were improves,.

Finally, he tries to strengthen the bureaucracy by streamlining it and simplifying its procedures. He sought to abloish the more obvious sinecure appointments an dto move some of the displace officials to positions in the new economic planning bureaus.


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Many senior officers, viewing Guangxu's reform program with a jaundiced eye, saw it as detrimental t the long-term good of China and destructive of China's true inner values. Guangxu seems to have mistakenly thought that his aunt Cixi would support his vision of a new China and would help him override the opposition. In fact she was disturbed by some of the proposed changes that threatened to weaken the Qing ruling house, and was worried that the faction supporting Guanxu seemes dangerously subordinate to pressure and influences from both the British and the French.

ALthough the evidence is contradictory, it seems that a number of the reformers feared there might be a coup against the eperor, and accordingly approached some leading generals in an attempt to win their support. this led to a backlash when news of the scheming was reported to the empress dowager, who, on September 19. 1898, suddenly returned to the Forbidden City. Two days late,, she issued an edict claiming that the emperor had asked her to resume power. She put Guanxu under palace detention and arrested six of his reputedly radicaL ADVISERS. Before they could even be tried on the vague conspiracy charges, her order that they be executed was carried out, to the dismay of the reform party and of many foreigners in China. kang YuWei had left Peking on assignment just before the coup, but his younger brother was among the victims. Now, with a price on his head, Kang YuWei was carried to safety in Jong Kong... and from there made his way to Canada. Liang Quchao also fled China and began a life of exile. His and Kang's dreans for a coherent program of reform, to be coordinated by the emperor in the name of a new China, had ended in disaster.

Frank H.H. King. A Conscise Economic History of Modern China. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1969.

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The immediate impact of 1898 on China was contradictory. While on the one hand the defeat facilitated further, but still limited, government-sponsored economic projects; on the other hand, it temporarily discredited officials like Li -Hung CChhang

It fostered the 100 days reform of 1898


CHina, Japan and the Powers

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China's defeat by Japan in 1894 and 1895 was the first event which impressed on any considerable number of the CHinese scholar-gentry the urgency of westernization. Defeat by Japan was particularly galling for the CHinese had long been accustomed to looking down on the japanese as a people whoo owed whatever civilization the possessed to the Middle Kingdom.

However, the fact that Japan could master Western techniques and use them agaisnt CHina with such effect gave zealous Chinese a sort of hope.

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With the major powers asking for railroad and mining concessions, boundary rectifications, leasehold, nonalienation agreements, and the right to make loans, the breakup of CHina seemes imminent.

What could save China from dismemberment? Army reform, or a broader program of westernization such as Japan had underone? Who would initaiate it an carry it out? Answers to these question came in June, 1898, when the emperor himself came forward to lead what was subsequently known as the "Hundred Days Reform"

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The emperor. though now fully of man's estate, was not completely free of the unfluence of his :Augus Aunty".

The Emores Dowager was well aware of the emperor's desire for independence and continued to manuever members of her coteri into key positions in which they could thwart and restrict any dangerous self-assertion by the emperor. Example...

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The reforms which the emperor decreed under the guidance of the reform party covered a tremendous range.

An imperial university was created

'The Chinese Progress', a newspaper which Liang had been editing in Shanghai, became an official organ of the government.

A Bureau of Agriculktue, Arts and COmmercce was created, to encourahe scientific methos of farming and the use of labor saving machinery.

The emperor and his advisors were aware of their danger and resolve dto put the EMpress Dowager out of the way before she could dispose them.


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As Kang Yu-wei later saud if he attitude of the emperor in 1898 "...he saw his country about to sink in the earth, about to be buried in ruins, about to burst like an egg, about to be divided up, about to mortify, abou to be torn in shreds, about to become like India or Anam, or Burmah- a dependent of another Power!"

HJaoan by promy and consious westernixation had escaped this faith; China must hasten to do likewise or be taken captive. hence the valiant effort of the yound emperor and his advisers to do what they thought neccesary to save China in the aces of oppisition.

Plans to reform by the Empress Dowager herself and the Manchus